Production of Green Diesel by Catalytic Cracking of Waste Cooking Oil Using a Bentonite Catalyst

Charles; Minto Supeno

doi:10.32734/jcnar.v7i2.27057

Authors

Charles Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Sumatera Utara, Medan 20155, Indonesia
Minto Supeno Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Sumatera Utara, Medan 20155, Indonesia

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.32734/jcnar.v7i2.27057

Keywords:

Bentonite, Catalytic cracking, Green diesel, Waste cooking oil, Deoxygenation

Abstract

This study investigated the catalytic conversion of WCO using bentonite as a low-cost silica-alumina catalyst to produce a hydrocarbon-rich liquid containing green-diesel-range components. WCO was pretreated at 105 °C, while bentonite was dried at the same temperature and characterized by SEM-EDX, BET surface-area analysis, and TGA. Catalytic cracking was conducted at 350 °C using bentonite loadings of 1, 3, and 5 wt%. The liquid products were evaluated by GC-MS, FT-IR, cetane-related fuel-property analysis, and physicochemical tests. Increasing catalyst loading improved WCO conversion and liquid-product yield. At 5 wt% bentonite, the conversion and liquid-product yield reached 99.236 and 75.768 wt%, respectively, while coke formation decreased to 0.763 wt%. GC-MS showed that this product was dominated by the kerosene-range fraction (65.79%) and contained 18.25% diesel-oil-range compounds. FT-IR indicated substantial deoxygenation through decreased carbonyl intensity and disappearance of the carboxylic-acid O-H region. The product showed a cetane-related value of 48.2, viscosity of 4.93 mm²/s, density of 862 kg/m³, flash point of 39 °C, corrosion class 1a, and carbon residue of 0.100069% m/m. Among the investigated catalyst loadings, 5 wt% bentonite gave the best overall catalytic performance; however, the low flash point and broad product distribution indicate that further upgrading and optimization are required before the product can be considered a drop-in diesel fuel.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

[1] Gautam P, Kumar S, Lokhandwala S. Energy-aware intelligence in megacities. In Current Developments in Biotechnology and Bioengineering: Waste Treatment Processes for Energy Generation (pp. 211–238). Elsevier 2019. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-64083-3.00011-7.

[2] Thushari I, Babel S. Comparative study of the environmental impacts of used cooking oil valorization options in Thailand. Journal of Environmental Management, 310 2022. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.114810.

[3] Chen C, Chitose A, Kusadokoro M, Nie H, Xu W, Yang F, Yang S. Sustainability and challenges in biodiesel production from waste cooking oil: An advanced bibliometric analysis. Energy Reports, 7, 4022–4034 2021. doi:10.1016/j.egyr.2021.06.084.

[4] Orjuela A, Clark J. Green chemicals from used cooking oils: Trends, challenges, and opportunities. Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry (Vol. 26). Elsevier B.V 2020. doi:10.1016/j.cogsc.2020.100369.

[5] Zhao Y, Wang C, Zhang L, Chang Y, Hao Y. Converting waste cooking oil to biodiesel in China:Environmental impacts and economic feasibility. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 140. 15 2021.

[6] Frota de Albuquerque Landi F, Fabiani C, Castellani B, Cotana F, Pisello AL. Environmental assessment of four waste cooking oil valorization pathways. Waste Management, 138, 219–233 2022. doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2021.11.037.

[7] Liepins J, Balina K, Soloha R, Berzina I, Lukasa LK, Dace E. Glycolipid biosurfactant production from waste cooking oils by yeast: Review of substrates, producers and products. In Fermentation (Vol. 7, Issue 3). MDPI AG 2021. doi:10.3390/fermentation7030136.

[8] Kamaruzaman MF, Taufiq-Yap YH, Derawi D. Green diesel production from palm fatty acid distillate over SBA-15-supported nickel, cobalt, and nickel/cobalt catalysts. Biomass and Bioenergy, 134 2020. doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2020.105476.

[9] Murnieks R, Apseniece L, Kampars V, Shustere Z, Malins K. Investigation of Deoxygenation of Rapeseed Oil over Raney Nickel and Ni/SiO2−Al2O3 Catalysts. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 41(6), 2193–2198 2016. doi:10.1007/s13369-015-1932-2.

[10] Nugrahaningtyas KD, Lukitawati R, Mukhsin SA, Fadlulloh Z, Sabiilagusti AI, Budiman AW, Kurniawati MF. Conversion of waste cooking oil into green diesel using Ni/MOR and Cu/MOR catalysts. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2190(1) 2022. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2190/1/012037.

[11] Baharudin KB, Abdullah N, Taufiq-Yap YH, Derawi D. Renewable diesel via solventless and hydrogen-free catalytic deoxygenation of palm fatty acid distillate. Journal of Cleaner Production, 274 2020. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122850.

[12] Douvartzides SL, Charisiou ND, Papageridis KN, Goula MA. Green diesel: Biomass feedstocks, production technologies, catalytic research, fuel properties and performance in compression ignition internal combustion engines. Energies (Vol. 12, Issue 5). MDPI AG 2019. doi:10.3390/en12050809.

[13] Asikin N, Lee HV, Alsultan GA, Yap T. Synthesis and characterization of silicaalumina supported Ca and Ni catalyst for deoxygenation of vegetable oil into diesel. Materials Science Forum, 840, 353–358 2016. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF.840.353.

[14] Thangadurai T, Tye CT. Acidity and basicity of metal oxide-based catalysts in catalytic cracking of vegetable oil. In Brazilian Journal of Chemical Engineering (Vol. 38, Issue 1). Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH 2021. doi:10.1007/s43153-02000085-z.

[15] Rabie AM, Mohammed EA, Negm NA. Feasibility of modified bentonite as acidic heterogeneous catalyst in low temperature catalytic cracking process of biofuel production from nonedible vegetable oils. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 254, 260–266 2018. doi:10.1016/j.molliq.2018.01.110.

[16] Wang S, Jiang X, Nie G, Wang Z, Yu H, Liu Y, Wu Q, Yu S, Liu S. Trash into treasure: Nano ZSM-5 catalyst for cracking waste cooking oil to bio-gasoline with enhanced selectivity. Fuel Processing Technology, 242 2023. doi:10.1016/j.fuproc.2023.107666.

[17] Aziz I, Adhani L, Yolanda T, Saridewi N. Catalytic cracking of Jatropa curcas oil using natural zeolite of Lampung as a catalyst. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 299(1) 2019. doi:10.1088/1755-1315/299/1/012065.

[18] Hamouda AS, Acharjee P, Abdelrahman A, Radwan AM, Zaki AH, Farghali A, Mohamed HFM, Yadav A, Bhatnagar A, Goel A. Catalytic thermochemical cracking of polyethylene over nanocomposite bentonite clay. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 1046(1), 012022 2021. doi:10.1088/1757-899x/1046/1/012022.

[19] Istadi I, Riyanto T, Khofiyanida E, Buchori L, Anggoro DD, Sumantri I, Putro BHS, Firnanda AS. Low-oxygenated biofuels production from palm oil through hydrocracking process using the enhanced Spent RFCC catalysts. Bioresource Technology Reports, 14 2021. doi:10.1016/j.biteb.2021.100677.

[20] Istadi I, Riyanto T, Buchori L, Anggoro DD, Gilbert G, Meiranti KA, Khofiyanida E. Enhancing Brønsted and Lewis Acid Sites of the Utilized Spent RFCC Catalyst Waste for the Continuous Cracking Process of Palm Oil to Biofuels. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research, 59(20), 9459–9468 2020. doi:10.1021/acs.iecr.0c01061.

[21] Li Y, Hou C, Jiang J, Zhang Z, Zhao C, Page AJ, Ke Z. General H2 Activation Modes for Lewis Acid-Transition Metal Bifunctional Catalysts. ACS Catalysis, 6(3), 1655–1662 2016. doi:10.1021/acscatal.5b02395.

[22] Zhao X, Wei L, Cheng S, Julson J. Review of heterogeneous catalysts for catalytically upgrading vegetable oils into hydrocarbon biofuels. In Catalysts (Vol. 7, Issue 3). MDPI 2017. doi:10.3390/catal7030083.

[23] Asikin-Mijan N, Lee HV, Abdulkareem-Alsultan G, Afandi A, Taufiq-Yap YH. Production of green diesel via cleaner catalytic deoxygenation of Jatropha curcas oil. Journal of Cleaner Production, 167, 1048–1059 2017. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.10.023.

[24] Ahmad M, Farhana R, Raman AAA, Bhargava SK. Synthesis and activity evaluation of heterometallic nano oxides integrated ZSM-5 catalysts for palm oil cracking to produce biogasoline. Energy Conversion and Management, 119, 352–360 2016. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2016.04.069.

[25] Almutairi SMT, Mezari B, Filonenko GA, Magusin PCMM, Rigutto MS, Pidko EA, Hensen EJM. Influence of Extraframework Aluminum on the Brønsted Acidity and Catalytic Reactivity of Faujasite Zeolite. ChemCatChem, 5(2), 452–466 2013. doi:10.1002/cctc.201200612.

[26] Abdulkareem-Alsultan G, Asikin-Mijan N, Mustafa-Alsultan G, Lee HV, Wilson K, Taufiq-Yap YH. Efficient deoxygenation of waste cooking oil over Co3O4-La2O3-doped activated carbon for the production of diesel-like fuel. RSC Advances, 10(9), 4996–5009 2020. doi:10.1039/c9ra09516k.

[27] Jawad AH, Saber SEM, Abdulhameed AS, Farhan AM, ALOthman ZA, Wilson LD. Characterization and applicability of the natural Iraqi bentonite clay for toxic cationic dye removal: Adsorption kinetic and isotherm study. Journal of King Saud University - Science, 35(4) 2023. doi:10.1016/j.jksus.2023.102630.

[28] Lee JH, Kim J, Kwon JS, Jo HY. Effect of hydrothermal alteration of Cabentonite in K-rich solutions with different pHs on the physicochemical, swelling, and Cs adsorption properties. Applied Geochemistry, 158 2023. doi:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2023.105791.

[29] Maged A, Kharbish S, Ismael IS, Bhatnagar A. Characterization of activated bentonite clay mineral and the mechanisms underlying its sorption for ciprofloxacin from aqueous solution. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(26), 32980–32997 2020. doi:10.1007/s11356-020-09267-1.

[30] Yang Y, Zhang J, Xu L, Li P, Liu Y, Dang W. Pore Structure and Fractal Characteristics of Deep Shale: A Case Study from Permian Shanxi Formation Shale, from the Ordos Basin. ACS Omega, 7(11), 9229–9243 2022. doi:10.1021/acsomega.1c05779.

[31] Noskov AV, Alekseeva OV, Shibaeva VD, Agafonov AV. Synthesis, structure and thermal properties of montmorillonite/ionic liquid ionogels. RSC Advances, 10(57), 34885–34894 2020. doi:10.1039/d0ra06443b.

[32] Amaya J, Bobadilla L, Azancot L, Centeno M, Moreno S, Molina R. Potentialization of bentonite properties as support in acid catalysts. Materials Research Bulletin, 123 2020. doi:10.1016/j.materresbull.2019.110728.

[33] Muhammad I, Makwashi N, Ahmed TG, Manos G, Zhao D. A Mechanistic Model on Catalyst Deactivation by Coke Formation in a CSTR Reactor. Processes, 11(3) 2023. doi:10.3390/pr11030944.

[34] Widjaya RR, Juwono AL, Rinaldi N. Bentonite modification with pillarization method using metal stannum. AIP Conference Proceedings, 1904 2017. doi:10.1063/1.5011867.

[35] Baloyi J, Ntho T, Moma J. Synthesis of highly active and stable Al/Zr pillared clay as catalyst for catalytic wet oxidation of phenol. Journal of Porous Materials, 26(2), 583–597 2019. doi:10.1007/s10934-018-0667-3.

[36] Widjaya RR, Saridewi N, Putri AA, Rinaldi N, Dwiatmoko AA. Fe-Cr pillared clay as catalysts for the ethanol to gasoline conversion. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 1011(1) 2021. doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1011/1/012008.

[37] Olegario EM, Gili MBZ. Characterization of Philippine natural bentonite. Experimental Results, 2 2021. doi:10.1017/exp.2021.16.

[38] Mofijur M, Rasul MG, Hassan NMS, Masjuki HH, Kalam MA, Mahmudul HM. Assessment of physical, chemical, and tribological properties of different biodiesel fuels. In Clean Energy for Sustainable Development: Comparisons and Contrasts of New Approaches (pp. 441–463). Elsevier Inc 2017. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-805423-9.00014-4.